Normal Physiological Parameters Of Cattle

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                                                        Mastitis 

Mastitis is a major problem in dairy industry throughout the world. This disease causes huge economic losses to farmers in terms of production and price of milk. Price of dairy animal is based in its milk production. In case of cow front teats produce more milk (60%) than rear teats (40%) and vice versa in case of buffalo. If cow loses its front left or front right teat then there will be a huge economic loss.

According to National Mastitis Council (NMC), USA:

“Mastitis is an inflammation of mammary glands that happens in response to the injury for purpose of neutralizing infectious agent to prepare way for healing and turned to normal function.”

Normal somatic cell count in milk is 200,000 and in case of mastitis it goes to several thousands. Mastitic milk has 90 % neutrophils and 10% somatic cells. If 40 % neutrophils, there will be mild mastitis while in case of 90 % neutrophils; there will be severe mastitis.

                                                                                                Effect of Mastitis on Milk

​Mastitis affects the quality of milk and there is increase in the number of bacteria. Common sources of bacteria are inadequate cleaning of milking utensils, hands not properly washed, skin of udder not properly cleaned and contamination of the teat skin. There is a direct relationship between skin and mastitis. If dirty skin then more chances of mastitis. By providing hygienic conditions mastitis can be controlled and quality of milk and its byproducts can be improved.

• Increased somatic cell count and increased neutrophils and macrophages also deteriorate the quality of milk. Increased somatic cell count claims mastitis. So there is direct relationship between mastitis and somatic cell count. But in late lactation and newly parturating animals, there is also increase in somatic cells.

• Whenever there is rise in somatic cell count, casein content falls down (which is very important protein). Similarly leakage of certain proteins from serum like albumin, immunoglobulin and transferrin into milk also occurs.

• There is also an increase in sodium and potassium ions. 

• Calcium level decreases.

• Normal pH of milk is 6.6 but it may raise upto 6-9 or more in the milk collected from subclinically mastitic animal and even more in clinically mastitic animals.

• There is release of proteolytic enzyme from blood like plasmin. Plasmin is excessive in blood but low in milk. It cannot be destroyed at 140oC. If it is high in milk then deteriorate the quality of milk. Milk heated at 140oC for 1.5 minute destroys the Plasmin and some other enzyme like lipase. Lipase attack triglycerides to convert them into free fatty acids, which produce offensive smell and rancid flavour in milk.

• Watery milk shows chronic type of inflammation. If watery secretion present in first few streaks (about 10 streaks) then normal but if more than it then chronic mastitis.

Plaques present in milk show severe infection. If present at start of milking then shows infection due to S. aureus. If at the end of milking then indicates animal having TB. These plaques are normally present in milk in 1-2 days of lactation and in last 2-3 days of lactation.​

                                                             Types of Mastitis

Latent Mastitis:
Pathological organisms present in milk but no swelling of udder and normal cell count.

Sub Clinical Mastitis:
Bacteria and somatic cells present in milk and change in composition of milk but no gross lesions.

Clinical Mastitis:
It is divided into three categories depending upon severity:

(a): Acute: There are obvious symptoms of inflammation present on udder, change in colour and composition of milk and increased temperature.

(b): Subacute: No obvious change in udder but clots and plaques present in the milk.

(d): Chronic: Every acute infection develops into chronic infection if not treated. In this phase major changes are fibrosis of udder. There may be fibrotic mass particularly in teat canal.

Aseptic/Non Specific Mastitis:
It is due to trauma or injury to the udder.

                                                      Pathogens Involved in Mastitis

Contagious Pathogens:
They spread from quarter to quarter through contamination by hands, flies, wounds etc. They always require host e.g. Staph aureus, Mycoplasma, Pasteurella. They have very limited life in environment. In Pakistan mastitis caused by Staph aureus and Streptococcus agalectia is 70-80 % of mastitis and rest of it is caused by environment (E. coli)

Environmental Opportunist:
The primary source is the environment in which the animal lives. They spread by direct contact of the teats to the bedding or mud, dirt and manure. Examples are Coliform species like E.coli, Klebsella, Streptococcus uberis, streptococcus agalactae, and streptococcus faecalis etc.

Opportunist Pathogens:
This group of mastitis pathogens includes around 30 different species of the genus Staphylococcus (other than Staph aureus) and Corynebacterium bovis. They are normally present on the teat skin and streak canal. Therefore they are in an opportunistic position to colonize the teat canal and penetrate the udder.  

Endogenous Pathogens:
Etiological agents of systemic diseases with mammary gland involvement like Leptospira, Mycobacterium bovis etc

                                                                                                     Sources of Mastitis

• Hands of milker. Staph aureus is present on skin, naries of human if no proper bath. He will shift from one herd to other.

• Lack of proper management i.e. proper teat dipping is not carried out, no antiseptic solution is used and no sanitation measures are taken.

• Trauma during sitting posture or due to kicking udder leads to mastitis.

• Folded thumb milking particularly in villages damages the teat and causes adhesion and increases the chances of mastitis.

In old animals teat canal is fragile and immune system is weak. So there are more chances of infection in old animals.​

Clinical Findings of Mastitis

• There is change in udder size; size increases in acute cases while in chronic cases it decreases due to fibrosis and atrophy

• Consistency of udder is soft and hot in acute but hard in chronic due to fibrosis

• In case of endogenous spread (like E.coli) systemic reaction may occur and cause temperature, anorexia, depression and whenever increase in fever animal is off feed

• In S. aureus infection there is rise in temperature in early stages

In case of streptococcus no rise in temperature while in case of E.coli high temperature​.
                                                                                                    Diagnosis of Mastitis

Direct Microscopic Method:
Put 0.1 ml of milk sample on slide, dry it and stain it with Newman Lampert’s Stain and then count somatic cells with the help of microscope in certain area. Multiply the cell counted with a working factor of microscope, it will give the number of cells per ml of milk.

The Coulter Counter:
It allows the rapid and accurate determination of the number of particles above a certain size in a suspension.

Fossomatic Instrument:
It is an automatic microscopic method for counting cells in liquids. Cells are stained with ethidium bromide and are then excited with a high energy lamp, causing them to emit light energy which is detected electronically, the results being displayed are printed out for each successive sample. From the sample 0.2 ml is taken and transferred to a glass container on a rotary table where it is mixed with preheated buffer and dye and stirred well. Part of the mixture is then transferred to the periphery of a rotating disc, which serves as an object plane for the microscope. The film is illuminated by a xenon arc lamp, the light passes through lenses and a blue filter. Each cell produces an electrical pulse, which is fed to an amplifier. The printout of the count needs to be multiplied by 1000 to give number of cells per ml.

NAGase Assay:
NAGase (N-acetyl glucosamide) is a lysosomal enzyme. Its level increases due to mastitis which can be detected for the diagnosis of mastitis. Kits to detect are available.

California Mastitis Test:
A reagent is used in California Mastitis Test which is alkaline in nature. Whenever mastitis occurs, there will be destruction of leukocytes due to phagocytosis. As a result DNA content increases in milk which is acidic in nature and causes the increase in the acidity of milk. Any alkaline reagent if added, it will neutralize the milk. The reagent added in California mastits has alkyl aryl sulfoxide which will cause the precipitation or gel formation in milk.

Surf Field Mastitis Test:
A test discovered by Prof. Dr. Ghulam Muhammad, Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. Make 3 % surf field solution: add 6 teaspoons of surf in half litre water, mix it, filter the solution and heat it. Take milk and add equal volume of 3% solution, swirl this mixture for half minute and then examine for precipitation or gel formation (In case of mastitis). The test solution is stable for 6 months at room temperature. The solution should be shaken well before use.

Strip Cup Method:
It is the simplest method. Take few streaks in cups with black background and observe any abnormality e.g. clots.

Ground Test:
Take few streaks on ground. If the absorbance of streak is quick in ground then animal is –ve for mastitis but if the absorbance is slow then milk is mastitic. Late absorbance is due to pus as mastitic milk is pus containing milk.

Measuring Electrical Conductivity of Milk:
The concentration of sodium and chloride increases in milk as a result of mastitis. These ionic changes together with increase in milk pH and decrease of milk fat lead to increased electrical conductivity of milk. Electrical conductivity measuring can be converted into computer readable signal. Therefore, this method is easily applicable to online automatic monitoring of udder health and can be installed in milking machines. The method however, is not very specific for mastitis.

                                                         Treatment of Mastitis

We have to target three things:

• Specific treatment

• Symptomatic treatment

• Supportive treatment

First of all determine the nature of mastitis and on the basis of nature of mastitis and its etiological agent select antibiotics. Antibiotics can be administered through intramuscular or intramammary route. Whenever given through intramuscular route the best drugs to be given are macrolides (erythromycin, tylosin), oxytetracyclin, cephlosporin, chlorofluracin, and quinolines (norfloxacin). Tribrissen is also good. The best approach is to give antibiotics through intramammary route. Commercial Intramammary tubes are also available in market. For subsiding inflammation steroids may be used in acute inflammation otherwise NSAIDS.

Vitamin AD3E may be used to increase immunity. To enhance immunity, trace elements like zinc, copper, and iodine may also be used. Biotechnological products like Interleuken-1, Interleuken-2, and lysostaphin are also used.

Udder Toilet:
It refers to infusing larger quantity of weak antiseptic solution into quarter and withdrawing it. For this purpose acriflavin solution (1:10000 boiled in water) is generally used. Remove milk from the udder and infuse the solution, remain there for 5 minutes and then remove out with the help of syringe.

Permanent Drying/Blocking of Affected Quarter:
If quarter does not respond to antibiotic, infuse tincture iodine into that quarter; it will cause irritation and block that quarter permanently. 50 ml of chlorhexadene can also be used.

Basic Remedies:
Garlic, lemon , ginger, red chilies, black pepper, black zera, dried ginger….dry for 5 days. Mix them in flour, sprinkle water and wrap in newspaper. Give for 5 days.

250 ml lemon and 500 gram sugar may also be given.

250 gram garlic and 1000 ml milk is cooked and given to animal for 2-3 days

                                                                                              Control of Mastitis

Two main objectives of control:

1.    Prevention of new infection in the herd

2.    Reduction of duration of existing infection

There are five different plans to control mastitis which were devised by NMC (National Mastitis Council), USA in 1990.

• Pre milking teat dipping

• Post milking teat dipping

• Dry cow therapy

• Prompt treatment of clinical cases

• Culling of chronic mastitic animals from the herd

Pre Milking Teat Dipping:
Dip the teats before milking with the . Dry the teats after pre dipping by towel or tissue. Do not use same towel for more than one animal. Teat cups are available having antiseptic in it like iodofores (0.1-1 % iodine). Dip the teats one by one for 2-3 seconds. Quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorhexidine, and sodium hypochlorite may also be used as dip solution.

Post Milking Teat Dipping:
Organism is present in environment and teat skin. In order to avoid it we go for post milking dipping. After milking teat sphincter remains open for 30 minutes to 2 hours. It is ideal time for entry of organism to teat canal. So perform teat dipping after milking. Solutions for post milking teat dipping are same as for pre milking teat dipping.

Dry Cow Therapy:
The rate of new udder infections increases dramatically shortly after drying off and remains elevated during the first 3 weeks of mammary involution. During the first few days after drying off, the animal goes through a period of stress that may predispose her to infections.  Up to 40% of all new intramammary infections are established during the first two weeks of the dry period and without dry cow therapy, 10 to 15% of the quarters will become infected during the dry period. Dry cow treatment is aimed at preventing new infection from occurring during this period of increased susceptibility as well as curing existing infection and is beneficial against both contagious and environmental pathogens. Advantages of dry cow treatment include the following:

• The cure rate is higher than during lactation

• Higher concentrations of drugs can be used

• New infections during the dry period are reduced except first 3 weeks after drying off

• Drug residues in milk are avoided

Prompt Treatment of Clinical Cases:
Despite implementation of effective mastitis control measures, clinical cases still occur. These cases should be treated promptly to maximize the chances of recovery. Treatment of clinical cases involves intramammary and parenteral administration of antibiotics. Extreme care must be taken whenever anything is being infused into udder. Careless treatment procedures can result in udder infections resistant to treatment. Approach treatment in the same way a surgeon approaches surgery.

• Wash hands with soap and water

• Wash teats and udder in sanitizing solution

• Thoroughly dry teats and udder with single service individual paper towels

• Dip teats in an effective germicidal teat dip

• Allow 30 seconds of contact time before wiping off teat dip with an individual towel

• Thoroughly scrub the teat end with a cotton swab soaked in alcohol. If all four quarters are being treated, start by cleaning the teat farthest from you and work toward the closest teat.

• Preferably use commercial antibiotic products in single dose containers designed with partial insertion arrangement formulated for dry cow therapy in single dose containers. Do not allow the sterile cannula to touch anything prior to infusion.

• After infusion, remove cannula, squeeze teat end with one hand, massage antibiotic up into the quarter with the other hand. Dip teats in an effective germicidal teat dip after treatment.

• One can also prepare infusion solutions and infused with the help of plastic part of IV catheter (Branula # 18 or 20).

Culling of Mastitic Animals:
Cull mastitic animals from herd.

                                                                                                 Managmental Control

• Segregation of healthy and infected animals and milking of healthy animals ahead of infected animals

• Cull chronically infected animals

• Purchase mastitis-free animals (Surf Field Mastitis test -ive animals). Keep them segregated for about 2 weeks. Retest with Surf test before adding to already existing herd.

• Mastitis control in heifers: The gradual building up of a separate heifer herd, clean at the outset, is of great importance. The occasional appearance of mastitis in first-calving heifers is said to be due to the habit of female calves sucking one another's teats. This problem should be addressed through appropriate managemental practices.

• Proper treatment of teat and udder wounds

• Fly control

• General cleanliness of farm

• Proper disposal of mastitic milk of clinical cases

• Prepartum milking of animals which develop mastitis close to calving: Many dairy animals which have subclinical infections during the dry period often develop severe swelling of the udder and teat a few weeks or days before calving. If such is the case, one should start milking the diseased quarter (s) before parturition. Appropriate treatment should also be given.

• Proper nutrition: The feed should be balanced in terms of energy, protein contents, as well as vitamins and minerals.

​                                                                                            Foot & Mouth Disease

It is an infectious viral disease of cloven footed animals characterized by high fever and vesicle formation in oral cavity and on feet and teats. This disease is known throughout the world due to economic loses. In terms of economic loses it is one of the most important diseases of livestock by drastic fall in meat and milk production. Death in adult animal is rare; more in young animals and affected females become infertile for long periods. Pure exotic breeds and cross bred animals that have been recovered from FMD start panting and become useless for farmers in case of transport or other work. After recovery the production of animal decreases.T​ype A, type C, type Asia 1, and type O of virus have been identified in Pakistan. The antigenic difference among various types and sub types is the main problem in the control of the disease. So regular typing and sub typing of virus should be done and field strains should be added into vaccine. Mostly cattle and exotic breeds are susceptible. Mouth lesions are more severe in cattle and foot lesions are more severe in buffalo.

Some Factors due to Which FMD is not Controlled in Pakistan:

• In Pakistan numerous natural and socio-economic problems made the control of FMD very difficult.

• Occurrence of different serotypes, subtypes and frequent mutation is one of the major problems in control of FMD. Apart from 7 serotypes there are several subtypes that are ontogenetically and immunologically different and do not provide cross protection. About 80-88 subtypes have been identified.

• New antigenic subtypes are constantly emerging. Animals which are immune against one subtype remain susceptible to the emerging subtype.

• Quality of vaccine: in our area trivalent (A, O, Asia 1) vaccine is given having three serotypes but most of the times FMD contains newly emerging strains which lead to failure of vaccine.

• Lack of comprehensive vaccination program.

• FMD virus is quite resistant even to commonly used disinfectants.

• There is lack of quarantine measures in case of entry and exit of animal at farm.

• Nomadic animals move from one geographical area to another area carrying infection.

• Some non susceptible animals like birds, dogs, and cats are potential source of spread. Virus passes unchanged from GIT of birds so birds play important role in dissemination of virus from one area to another. Similarly dogs and cats fed on animals died of FMD also become the source of spread.

• About 50 % of recovered animals act as FMD carriers. So it is more beneficial to keep recovered animals separate from healthy animals.

• Lack of communication between farmers and veterinarian.

• Non certification of freedom from disease before introducing them to the farm.

• Nosocomial spread (from hospital, veterinarian and para veterinary staff) by syringes, crush, thermometer etc.

• Common grazing and watering and common and not properly disinfected utensils.

• Socio economic factor: farmers cannot afford the vaccination

• Farming with multiple animal species.

• Lack of effective reporting system.

Clinical Signs:

• High rise in body temperature that generally do not respond to antibiotics

• Heavy stringy salivation

• Occurrence of vesicles and ulcers in the mouth, on feet and teats

•  Reduction in feed intake and milk production

• Teat infection may lead to mastitis

• Lameness due to lesions on feet

• High death rate in young animals

• Deformities in hooves

• 50 % weight loss

Treatment:

• As it is a viral infection so no specific treatment but purpose is to shorten the disease.

• Isolate the sick animal with separate feeding and watering utensils.

• Wash the mouth of animal with 2 % alum solution or 1:1000 dilution of potassium per magnate.

• Ointment for vesicle (Smear on vesicle (mouth) three times a day):

1. Alum: 1 tea spoon

2. Potassium chlorate: 1 tea spoon                          

3. Boric acid: 1 tea spoon

4. Xylocain injection with 2 % adrenalin: 15 ml

• Antibiotics - Tribrissen 20ml intramuscularly for four days in adult buffalo and cattle

• Dipyrone (antipyretic) 25 ml (intramuscularly). Cold water therapy for fever

• 2 % solution of CuSO4, wash feet lesions and then smear with piodine or tincture iodine

• Multivitamins  15 ml (intramuscularly)

• Soft diet (leafy) should be given

• Protect lesion from flies to avoid maggots because maggots can produce in lesions

• Ethnoveterinary practices:

• Hot bread (roti) with butter is offered which will rupture the vesicles.

• Walk on hot sand or floor.

• Water from tanneries my be applied on vesicles. It will dry the vesicles.

Vaccination:
Vaccinate animals twice a year

                                                        Milk Fever or Parturient Paresis

Usually it develops due to deficiency of Calcium in serum. Whenever there is less Calcium there is loss of normal body tone and muscles become flaccid. It happens in high producing animals.

Factors:

• Inability to absorb Calcium from intestine e.g. in severe inflammation of intestine

• Unavailability of ionized calcium ions in serum

• Excessive secretion of calcium in colostrum

• Deficiency of thyroid hormone which helps in calcium reabsorption from bone

• If calcitonin level is increased in body then it binds ionic calcium and makes it unavailable for body for normal functioning.

• Aminoglycosides like kenamycin etc. bind the calcium when given through intravascular rout. EDTA and oxytetracyclin also bind the calcium. So we should not use these drugs during pregnancy, parturition and lactation,

• 20-30 % of cows are prone to it; usually 5-10 years old cows having 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, or 7th calving. Incidence at first calving is less. There are three phases of milk fever in cattle:

• Prior to parturition (animal may fall on ground)

• During parturition

• After parturition

• Maximum care right after 48 hours and occasionally occurs after 6-8 weeks. Suddenly animal may fall. Most of time during pregnancy estrogen level is increased due to which loss of appetite; animal does not take feed properly due to which calcium deficiency occurs and leads to milk fever. Burseem fodder cause increase in estrogen level and leads to starvation.

Treatment:
Usually 400-800 ml 25 % calcium borogluconate is given in large animals. While giving calcium note all parameters, high doses may cause calcium toxicity and low dose causes relapse of calcium. To avoid heart attack, give Ca in different doses. If slight high dose, immediate death may occur.

Calcium should be given in combination with 5 % dextrose. Absorption of calcium in tissue is increased due to dextrose because it emulsifies the calcium. To avoid reoccurrence give 20-30 ml of vitamin D (AD3E).

Other multivitamis like B complex. If aspiratory pneumonia, then give calcium through subcutaneous or intraperitonialroute. If you give intravascularly it will lead to edema, pulmonary hypertension.

Never inject calcium in summer season in direct sunlight it increases heart rate and there are chances of heart attack.

Control:
Avoid excessive calcium therapy before parturition.

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Harm caused by Ticks and its prevention:
Ticks make an animal’s life miserable. They suck the blood of the animals, cause a variety of diseases and even endanger their lives. They also cause a considerable loss of milk and meat production.
In Pakistan, the most suitable time for the growth of ticks is from February to October. 
Diseases due to ticks:

The diseases spread amongst animals due to ticks include: 1. Tick fever  2. Hepatitis

Both are fatal diseases which weaken the animal and cause its death.
Cross-bred animals are more prone to diseases caused by ticks, especially younger calves. Special care should be taken to protect them.

Precautions:
As ticks are found in several areas around the farm or shed, barks of  trees, cracks in walls and mangers and piles of wood, these cracks should be closed, farms and sheds should be kept clean and limestone powder should be sprayed in the shed  every fortnight to stop the growth of ticks.  
Our farmers sometimes take precautions to kill the ticks, but they do not get rid of the breeding places of ticks. So they re-populate to attack the animals again. It is important not only to safeguard the animals but also their shed.

Treatment:
 If ticks are found on animals, kill them with insect spray according to the advice    of the doctor.  Spray the body parts between legs and udder of the animals. Take care to pro   tect the animals’ mouth and eyes from the medicine. The animals should not be    able lick it from their body. If there are ticks at the farm, spray the premises every 21 days till the farm and  the animals are completely get rid of them. 

                                                                               Pica

When first noticed, the animal may be in a good state of nutrition, but soon there is loss of condition. The animal becomes somewhat restless, uneasy and depressed. The patient will almost at any time eat the abnormal substances already mentioned, lick the clothes of the attendants and gnaw at the fixed objects to which they may be attached, such as the manger, partition etc. Later the animal becomes quite thin and wasted. Animal shows various symptoms of indigestion, such as intermittent tympany, irregular bowels, and partially suspended rumination. The faeces become more or less dry and firm, although occasionally diarrhoeic and offensive in odour. The mucous membranes become paled and the skin harsh. If untreated the animal may die from malnutrition and exhaustion, after a varying period that may extend over months.

Treatment:
For the purpose of treatment, first change the pasture; if housed, remove to another shed. Complete change of environment is often necessary. Then, administer a purgative, and follow with alkalies and bitter tonics. The following mixture is particularly serviceable:

Carbonate of iron                                 = 120 g

Finely ground bone meal                      = 500 g

Powdered gentian (gentiana in Urdu)  = 140 g

Common salt                                        = 240 g

Powdered fenugreek (methi in Urdu)   = 140 g

These are to be mixed, and a full tablespoonful should be given three times a day. In addition, it is recommended that three tablespoonful of powdered charcoal may be mixed with the feed. It is also well to provide the animal with rock salt in his feeding trough. Successful results are also recorded from the hypodermic injection of apomorphine daily, for several consecutive days. To keep the problem away, the farmers should be advised to supplement the ration with a balanced mineral-vitamin mixture on regular basis

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